“Portrait of an East India Company Official” by unknown artist, c. 1760. Wikimedia Commons.

Introduction

by Allegra Villarreal

Narratives of travel and adventure first filtered into British consciousness, one could argue, in the age of pillage and pilgrimage that came with the earliest Crusades. During this time, accounts like that of Sir John Mandeville captured the imagination of the English but these fantastical quests would soon be supplanted by a genre rooted (supposedly) in a more honest account: the travelogue. In both print and manuscript form, tales of encounters with peoples of distant lands, proliferated in the decades after Columbus’ voyage.

What motivated these travels was not leisure; Muslim powers controlled key Mediterranean ports and trade routes, leaving European powers desperate to find alternative trade routes to the East. Indeed, Columbus famously thought he had landed upon the coast of India or China when, in actuality, he’d discovered the American continents; the resulting conquest of the Aztec and Incan Empires flooded Europe with gold, gems, and entirely new delicacies such as vanilla and chocolate. These riches inspired all other wealthy nations to amass navies and set sail in search of their own lucrative territories to lay claim to.

While the “New World” is often remembered as the focus of this contest, influence and control of other territories were also sought after including Mediterranean islands and ports (such as Sicily, Cyprus and Malta), and the coasts of Africa (where the practice of enslaving Africans and compelling them onto ships bound for the Americas has begun in earnest), as well as trade alliances with northern and Eastern Europe.

16th century England was no match for Spain or Portugal in terms of conquest and exploration, but considering their stature as a small, island nation (which had just broken off from the Roman Catholic Church), there was were voyages to Nova Scotia, Russia, Persia, Greenland, the Falkland Islands off the coast of Argentina, and the Caribbean all documented in Hakluyt’s Principle navigations, voyages, traffiques, and discoveries of the English Nation in 1589. Hakluyt, though never a world traveler himself, assembled a vast array of first-hand accounts of English travel “to the most remote and farthest distant quarters of the earth” with the express purpose of encouraging future exploration and enterprise.

The desire “To seek new worlds for gold, for praise, for glory,” as Sir Walter Ralegh put it, was not without cost: many of these explorers (including Cavendish, Frobisher, and Hawkins) died at sea, while others succumbed to disease and hunger. Those who stayed home only saw glimpses of these travels through the artifacts brought back and the accounts of travelers as detailed in the excerpts below. These early Elizabethan adventures give a glimpse into the nascent British Empire which would emerge in the following century.

Reading: From Dedicatory Epistle to The Principal Navigations by Richard Hakluyt (1589)

From To the Right Honorable Sir Francis Walsingham, Knight, principal secretary to Her Majesty, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and one of Her Majesty’s most honorable privy council

Right Honorable,

I do remember that being a youth, and one of her Majesty’s scholars at Westminster that fruitful nursery, it was my hope to visit the chamber of M. Richard Hakluyt, my cousin, a Gentleman of the Middle Temple, well known unto you, at a time when I found lying open upon his board certain books of Cosmographie, with a universal Map: he seeing me somewhat curious in the view thereof, began to instruct my ignorance, by showing me the division of the earth into three parts after the old account, and then according to the latter, & better distribution, into more: he pointed with his wand to all the known Seas, Gulfs, Bays, Straights, Capes, Rivers, Empires, Kingdoms, Dukedoms, and Territories of each part, with declaration also of their special commodities, & particular wants, which by the benefit of traffic [trade], & entercourse of merchants, are plentifully supplied. From the Mappe he brought me to the Bible, and turned to the 107. Psalm directed me to the 23 & 24 verses, where I read that they go down to the sea in ships, and occupy the great waters, they see the works of the Lord, and his wonders in the deep. Which words of the Prophet together with my cousins discourse (things of high and rare delight to my young nature) took in me so deep an impression, that I constantly resolved, if ever I were preferred to the University, where better time, and more convenient place might be ministered for these studies, I would by God’s assistance prosecute that knowledge and kind of literature, the doors whereof (after a sort) were so happily opened before me.

According to which my resolution, when, not long after, I was removed to Christ-church in Oxford, my exercises of duty first performed, I fell to my intended course, and by degrees read over whatsoever printed or written discoveries and voyages I found extant either in the Greek, Latin, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, or English languages, and, in my public lectures was the first, that produced and showed both the old imperfectly composed, and the new lately reformed Maps, Globes, Spheres, and other instruments of this Art for demonstration in the common schools, to the singular pleasure, and general contentment of my auditory. In continuance of time, and by reason principally of my insight in this study, I grew familiarly acquainted with the chiefest Captains at sea, the greatest Merchants, and the best Manners of our nation: by which means having gotten somewhat more than common knowledge, I passed at length the narrow seas into France with sir Edward Stafford, her Majesty’s careful and discreet Ligier, where during my five years abroad with him in his dangerous and chargeable residency in her Highness’ service, I both heard in speech, and read in books other nations miraculously extolled for their discoveries and notable enterprises by sea, but the English of all others for their sluggish security, and continual neglect of the like attempts especially in so long and happy a time of peace, either ignominiously reported, or exceedingly condemned: which singular opportunity, if some other people our neighbors had been blessed with, their protestations are often and vehement, they would fare otherwise have used. And that the truth and evidence hereof may better appear, these are the very words of Popiliniere in his book called L’Admiral de France, and printed at Paris. Fol. 73. pag 1, 2. The occasion of his speech is the commendation of the Rhodnais, who being (as we are) Islanders, were excellent in navigation, whereupon he wondered much that the English should not surpassed in that quality, in this sort:

Ce qui m’a fait autresfois rechercher les occasions, qui empeschent, que les Anglois, qui ont d’esprit, de moyens & valeur assez, pour s’aquerir vn grand honeur parmi tous les Chrestiens, ne se font plus valoir sur l’element qui leur est, & doit estre plus naturel qu’ à autres peuples: qui leur doiuent ceder en la structure, accommodement & police de nauires: comme i’ ay veu en plusieurs endroits parmi eux. 

Thus both hearing, and reading the obloquie of our nation, and finding few or none of our owne men able to reply herein: and further, not seeing any man to haue care to recommend to the world, the industrious labors, and painful travels of our countrymen: for stopping the mouths of the reprochers, my self being the last winter returned from France with the honorable the Lady Sheffield, for her passing good behavior highly esteemed in all the French court, determined notwithstanding all difficulties, to undertake the burden of that work wherein all others pretended either ignorance, or lack of leisure, or want of sufficient argument, whereas (to speak truly) the huge toil, and the small profit to insure, were the chief causes of the refusal. I call the work a burden, in consideration that these voyages lay so dispersed, scattered, and hidden in several hucksters’ hands, that I now wonder at myself, to see how I was able to endure the delays, curiosity, and backwardness of many from whom I was to receive my originals: so that I have just cause to make that complaint of the maliciousness of divers in our time, which Pliny made of the men of his age: At nos elaborata ijs abscondere átque supprimere cupimus, & fraudare vitam etiam alienis bonis, &c.

To harp no longer upon this string, & to speak a word of that just commendation which our nation does indeed deserve: it can not be denied, but as in all former ages, they have been men full of activity, stirrers abroad, and searchers of the remote parts of the world, so in this most famous and peerless gouvernement of her most excellent Majesty, her subjects through the special assistance, and blessing of God, in searching the most opposite corners and quarters of the world, and to speak plainly, in compassing the vaste globe of the earth more than once, haue excelled all the nations and people of the earth. For, which of the kings of this land before her Majesty, had their banners ever been in the Caspian sea? which of them hath ever dealt with the Emperor of Persia, as her Majesty hath done, and obtained for her merchants large & loving; privileges? who euer saw before this regiment, an English Ligier in the stately porch of the Grand Signor at Constantinople? who euer found English Consuls & Agents at Tripolis in Syria, at Aleppo, at Babylon, at Balsara, and which is more, who ever heard of Englishman at Goa before now? what English ships did heretofore ever anchor in the mighty river of Plate? passe and repasse the unpassable (in former opinion) strait of Magellan, range along the coast of Chili, Peru, and all the backside of Noua Hispania, further then any Christian euer passed, trauers the mighty breath of the South sea, land upon the Luzones in despite of the enemy, enter into alliance, amity, and traffic with the princes of the Moluccaes, & the Isle of Iaua, double the famous Cape of Bona Speranza, arrive at the Isle of Santa Helena, & last of al ruturne home most richly laden with the commodities of China, as the subiects of this now flourishing monarchy have done?

Lucius Florus in the very end of his historie de gestis Romanorum recorded as a wonderful miracle, that the Seres, (which I take to be the people of Cathay, or China) sent ambassadors to Rome, to entreat friendship, as moved with the fame of the majesty of the Roman Empire. And have not we as good cause to admire, that the Kings of the Moluccæs and Iaua maior, haue desired the favour of her majesty, and the commerce & traffic of her people? Is it not as strange that the born naturals of Japan, and the Philippinæs are here to be seen, agreeing with our climate, speaking our language, and informing us of the state of their Eastern habitations? For mine own part, I take it as a pledge of Gods further favour both unto vs and them: to them especially, unto whose doors I doubt not in time shall be by vs carried the incomparable treasure of the truth of Christianity, and of the Gospel, while we use and exercise common trade with their marchants. I must confess to have read in the excellent history intituled Origins of Ioannes Goropius, a testimony of king Henry the VIII, a prince of noble memory, whose intention was once, if death had not prevented him, to have done some singular thing in this case: whose words speaking of his dealing to that end with himself, he being a stranger, & his history rare, I thought good in this place verbatim to record:

Ante viginti & plus eo annos ab Henrico Kneuetto Equite Anglo nomine Regis Henrici arram accepi, qua conuenerat, Regio sumptu me totam Asiam, quoad Turcorum & Persarum Regum commendationes, & legationes admitterentur, peragraturum. Ab his enim duobus Asiæ principibus facile se impetraturum sperabat, vt non solùm tutò mihi per ipsorum fines liceret ire, sed vt commendatione etiam ipsorum ad confinia quoque daretur penetrare. Sumptus quidem non exiguus erat futurus, sed tanta erat principi cognoscendi auiditas, vt nullis pecunijs ad hoc iter necessarijs se diceret parsurum. O Dignum Regia Maiestate animum, O me foelicem, si Deus non antè & Kneuettum & Regem abstulisset, quàm reuersus ab hac peregrinatione fuissem, &c. 

But as the purpose of David the king to build a house and temple to God was accepted, although Solomon performed it: so I make no question, but that the zeal in this matter of the aforesaid most renowned prince may seem no less worthy (in his kind) of acceptance, although reserved for the person of our Solomon her gracious Majesty, whom I feare not to pronounce to haue received the same Heroical spirit, and most honorable disposition, as an inheritance from her famous father.

Now whereas I have always noted your wisdom to have had a special care of the honor of her Majesty, the good reputation of our country, & the advancing of navigation, the very walls of this our Island, as the oracle is reported to have spoken of the sea forces of Athens: and whereas I acknowledge in all dutiful sort how honorably both by your letter and speech I have been animated in this and other my travels, I see my self bound to make presentment of this work to yourself, as the fruits of your own encouragements, & the manifestation both of my unfeigned service to my prince and country, and of my particular duty to your honour: which I have done with the lessee suspicion either of not satisfying the world, or of not answering your own expectation, in that according to your order, it hath passed the sight, and partly also the censure of the learned physician M. Doctor James, a man many ways very notably qualified.

And thus beseeching God, the giver of all true honor & wisdom to increase both these blessings in you, with continuance of health, strength, happiness, and whatsoever good thing else your self can wish, I humbly take my leave.

London the 17. of November.

Your honors most humble always to be commanded

RICHARD HAKLUYT.

Reading: From A Geographical History of Africa by John Leo, a Moor (1526)

Those Arabians which inhabit in Barbarie or upon the coast of the Mediterranean sea, are greatly addicted unto the study of good arts and sciences: and those things which concerns their law and religion are esteemed by them in the first place. Moreover they have been heretofore most studious of the Mathematics, of Philosophy, and of Astrology: but these arts (as it is aforesaid) were four hundred years ago, utterly destroyed and taken away by the chief professors of their law. The inhabitants of cities do most religiously observe and reverence those things which appertain unto their religion: yea they honor those doctors and priests, of whom they learn their law, as if they were petie-gods. Their Churches they frequent very diligently, to the end they may repeat certain prescript and formal prayers; most superstitiously persuading themselves that the same day wherein they make their prayers, it is not lawful for them to wash certain of their members, when as at other times they will wash their whole bodies. [. . .]

Moreover those which inhabit Barbarie are of great cunning & dexterity for building & for mathematical inventions, which a man may easily conjecture by their artificial works. Most honest people they are, and destitute of all fraud and guile; not only embracing all simplicity and truth, but also practicing the same throughout the whole course of their lives: albeit certain Latin authors, which have written of the same regions, are far otherwise of opinion. Likewise they are most strong and valiant people, especially those which dwell upon the mountains. They keep their covenant most faithfully, insomuch that they had rather die than break promise. No nation in the world is so subject into jealousy; for they will rather lose their lives, then put up any disgrace in the behalf of their women. So desirous they are of riches and honor, that therein no other people can go beyond them. They travel in a manner over the whole world to exercise traffique. For they are continually to be seen in Egypt, in Ethiopia, in Arabia, Persia, India, and Turkey: and whithersoever they go, they are most honorably esteemed of: for none of them will possess any art, unless he hath attained unto great exactness and perfection therein. They have always been much delighted with all kind of civility and modest behavior: and it is accounted heinous among them for any man to utter in company, any bawdy or unseemly word. They have always in mind this sentence of a grave author; Give place to thy superior. If any youth in presence of his father, his uncle, or any other of his kindred, doth sing or talk ought of love matters, he is deemed to be worthy of grievous punishment. Whatsoever lad or youth there lights by chance into any company which discourses of love, no sooner hears nor understands what their talk tends unto, but immediately he withdraws himself from among them. These are the things which we thought most worthy of relation as concerning the civility, humanity, and upright dealing of the Barbarians: let us now proceed unto the residue.

Those Arabians which dwell in tents, that is to say, which bring up cattle, are of a more liberal and civil disposition: to wit, they are in their kind as devout, valiant, patient, courteous, hospital, and as honest in life and conversation as any other people. They be most faithful observers of their word and promise; insomuch that the people, which before we said to dwell in the mountains, are greatly stirred up with emulation of their virtues. Howbeit the said mountaineers, both for learning, for virtue, and for religion, are thought much inferior to the Numidians, albeit they have little or no knowledge at all in natural philosophy. They are reported likewise to be most skillful warriors, to be valiant, and exceeding lovers and practicers of all humanity. Also, the Moores and Arabians inhabiting Libya are somewhat civill of behavior, being plain dealers, voice of dissimulation, favorable to strangers, and lovers of simplicity. Those which we before named white, or tawny Moors, are stedfast in friendship: as likewise they indifferently and favorably esteem of other nations: and wholly endeavor themselves in this one thing, namely, that they may lead a most pleasant and jocund life. Moreover they maintain most learned professors of liberal arts, and such men are most devout in their religion. Neither is there any people in all Africa that lead a more happy and honorable life.

Never was there any people or nation so perfectly endued with virtue, but that they had their contrary faults and blemishes: now therefore let us consider, whether the vices of the Africans do surpass their virtues & good parts. Those which we named the inhabitants of the cities of Barbarie are somewhat needy and covetous, being also very proud and high-minded, and wonderfully addicted unto wrath; insomuch that (according to the proverbs) they will deeply engrave in marble any injury be it never so small, & will in no wise blot it out of their remembrance. So rustic they are & void of good manners, that scarcely can any stranger obtain their familiarity and friendship. Their wits are but mean, and they are so credulous, that they will believe matters impossible, which are told them. So ignorant are they of natural philosophy, that they imagine all the effects and operations of nature to be extraordinary and divine. They observe no certain order of living nor of laws. Abounding exceedingly with choler, they speak always with an angry and loud voice. Neither shall you walk in the day-time in any of their streets, but you shall see commonly two or three of them together by the ears. By nature they are a vile and base people, being no better accounted of by their governors then if they were dogs. They have neither judges nor lawyers, by whose wisdom and counsel they ought to be directed. They are utterly unskillful in trades of merchandize, being destitute of bankers and money-changers: wherefore a merchant can do nothing among them in his absence, but is himself constrained to go in person, whithersoever his wares are carried. No people under heaven are more addicted unto courtesy then this nation: neither is there (I think) to bee found among them one of an hundred, who for courtesy, humanity, or devotions sake will vouchsafe any entertainment upon a stranger. Mindful they have always been of injuries, but most forgetful of benefices. Their minds are perpetually possessed with vexation and strife, so that they will seldom or never show themselves tractable to any man; the cause whereof is supposed to be; for that they are so greedily addicted unto their filthy lucre, that they never could attain unto any kind of civility or good behavior.

The shepherds of that region live a miserable, toilsome, wretched and beggerly life: they are a rude people, and (as a man may say) borne and bred to theft, deceit, and brutish manners. Their young men may go a wooing to divers maidens, till such time as they have sped of a wife. Yea, the father of the maiden most friendly welcomes her suitor: so that I think scarce any noble or gentleman among them can choose a virgin for his spouse: albeit, so soon as any woman is married, she is quite forsaken of all her suiters; who then seeks out other new paramours for their liking. Concerning their religion, the greater part of these people are neither Mahumetans, Jewes, nor Christians; and hardly shall you find so much as a spark of piety in any of them. They have no churches at all, nor any kind of prayers, but being utterly estranged from all godly devotion, they lead a savage and beastly life: and if any man chances to be of a better disposition (because they have no law-givers nor teachers among them) he is constrained to follow the example of other mens lives & manners.

All the Numidians being most ignorant of natural, domestical, & commonwealth-matters, are principally addicted unto treason, treachery, murder, theft, and robbery. This nation, because it is most slavish, will right gladly accept of any service among the Barbarians, be it never so vile or contemptible. For some will take upon them to be dung-farmers, others to be scullions, some others to bee ostlers, and such like servile occupations. Likewise the inhabitants of Libya live a brutish kind of life; who neglecting all kinds of good arts and sciences, do wholly apply their minds unto theft and violence. Never as yet had they any religion, any laws, or any good form of living; but always had, and ever will have a most miserable and distressed life. There cannot any treachery or villainy be invented so damnable, which for lucres sake they dare not attempt. They spend all their days either in most lewd practices, or in hunting, or else in warfare: neither wore they any shoes nor garments. The Negros likewise lead a beastly kind of life, being utterly destitute of the use of reason, of dexterity of wit, and of all arts. Yea they so behave themselves, as if they had continually lived in a forrest among wilde beasts. They have great swarmes of harlots among them; whereupon a man may easily conjecture their manner of living: except their conversation perhaps be somewhat more tolerable, who dwell in the principal towns and cities: for it is like that they are somewhat more addicted to civility. [. . .]

Reading: From The First Book of the Introduction of Knowledge by Andrew Boorde (1547)

The Moore which do Dwell in Barbary

I am a black Moor born in Barbary;

Christian men for money oft doth me buy.

If I be unchristened, merchants do not care,

They buy me in markets, be I never so bare.

Yet will I be a good diligent slave,

Although I do stand in stead of a knave.

I do gather figs, and with some I wipe my tail:

To be angry with me, what shall it avail?

Barbary is a great country, and plentiful of fruit, wine, and corn. The inhabitors be called the Moors. There be white Moors and black Moors. They be infidels and unchristened. There be many Moors brought into Christendom, into great cities and towns, to be sold. And Christian men do buy them, and they will be diligent, and will do all manner of service. But they be set most commonly to vile things. They be called slaves. They do gather grapes and figs, and with some of the figs they will wipe their tail, and put them in the frail. They have great lips, and knotted hair, black and curled. Their skin is soft, and there is nothing white but their teeth and the white of the eye. When a merchant or any other man do buy them, they be not all of one price, for some be better cheap than some; they be sold after as they can work and do their business. When they do die, they be cast into the water, or on a dunghill, that dogs and pies and crows may eat them, except some of them that be christened: they be buried. They do keep much of Mohammed’s law, as the Turks do. They have now a great captain called Barbarossa which is a great warrior. They doth harm, divers times, to the Genoese, and to Provence and Languedoc, and other countries that do border on them, and for they will come over the straits, steal pigs, and geese, and other things. Whoso will speak any Moorish, English and Moorish doth follow.

One. two. three. four. five. six. seven.
Wada. attennin. talate. orba. camata. sette. saba.
eight. nine. ten. eleven. twelve. thirteen.
camene. tessa. asshera. habasshe. atanasshe. telatasshe.
fourteen. fifteen. sixteen. seventeen.
arbatasshe. camatasshe. setatasshe. sabatashe.
eighteen. nineteen. twenty. one and twenty, etc.
tematasshe. tyssatasshe. essherte. wahadaessherte, etc.

Good morrow.
Sabaskyr.
Give me some bread and milk and cheese.
Atteyne gobbis, leben, iuben.
Give me wine, water, flesh, fish, and eggs.
Atteyne nebet, moy, laghe, semek, beyet.
Much good do it you.
Sahagh.
You be welcome.
Marrehababack.
I thank you.
Erthar lake heracke.
Good night.
Mesalkyr.

Reading: From A True Discourse of the Late Voyages of Discovery by George Best (1577) 

from Experiences and Reasons of the Sphere, to Prove all Parts of the World Habitable and thereby to Confute the Position of the Five Zones

FIRST, it may be gathered by experience of our Englishmen in Anno 1553. For Captain Windam made a Voyage with Merchandise to Guinea, and entered so far within the Torrida Zona, that he was within three or four degrees of the Equinoctial, and his company abiding there certain Months, returned, with gains.

Also the Englishmen made another Voyage very prosperous and gainful, An. 1554. to the coasts of Guinea, within 3. degrees of the Equinoctial. And yet it is reported of a truth, that all the tract from Cape de las Palmas trending by C. de tres puntas alongst by Benin , unto the Ile of S. Thomas (which is perpendicular under the Equinoctial) all that whole Bay is more subject to many blooming and smothering heats, with infectious and contagious aires, then any other place in all Torrida Zona: and the cause thereof is some accidents in the land. For it is most certain, that mountains, Seas, woods and lakes &c. may cause through their sundry kind of situation, sundry strange and extraordinary effects, which the reason of the clime otherwise would not give. I mention these Voyages of our Englishmen, not so much to prove that Torrida Zona may be, and is inhabited, as to show their readiness in attempting long and dangerous Navigations. We also among us in England have black Moors, & Ethiopians, out of all parts of Torrida Zona, which after a small continuance, can well endure the cold of our Country, and why should not we as well abide the heat of their Country?

And…by the experience of sundry men, yea thousands, Travelers and Merchants, to the East and West Indies in many places both directly under, and hard by the Equinoctial, they with one consent affirm, that it abounds in the middest of Torrida Zona with all manner of Grain, Herbs, grass, fruit, wood and cattle, that we have here, and thousands other sorts, fare more wholesome, delectable and precious, then any we have in these Northern climates, as very well shall appear to him that will read the Histories and Navigations of such as have travelled Arabia , India intra & extra Gangem, the Islands Moluccae, America , &c. which all lie about the middle of the burning Zone, where it is truly reported, that the great herbs, as are Radish, Lettuce, Coleworts, Borage, and such like, do wax ripe, greater, more savory and delectable in taste then ours, within sixteen days after the seed is sown…And to be short, all they that have belle there with one consent affirm, that there are the goodliest green meadows and plaines, the fairest mountains covered with all sorts of trees and fruits, the fairest valleys, the goodliest pleasant fresh rivers, stored with infinite kind of fishes, the thickest woods, green and bearing fruit all the whole year, that are in all the world. And as for gold, silver, and all other kinds of Metals, all kinds of spices and delectable fruits, both for delicacy and health, are there in such abundance, as hitherto they have bene thought to have been bred no where else but there. And in conclusion, it is now thought that no where else but under the Equinoctial, or not far from thence, is the earthly Paradise, and the only place of perfection in this world.

***

Others again imagine the middle Zone to be extreme hot, because the people of Africa , especially the Ethiopians, are so coal black, and their hair like wool curled short, which blackness and curled hair they suppose to come only by the parching heat of the Sun, which how it should be possible I cannot see: for even under the Equinoctial in America , and in the East Indies, and in the islands Moluccae the people are not black, but tawny and white, with long hair uncurled as wee have, so that if the Ethiopians’ blackness came by the heat of the Sun, why should not those Americans and Indians also be as black as they, seeing the Sun is equally distant from them both, they abiding in one Parallel?…

Therefore to return again to the black Moors. I myself have seen an Ethiopian as black as a coal brought into England, who taking a faire English woman to wife, begat a son in all respects as black as the father was, although England were his native country, and an English woman his mother: whereby it seems this blackness proceeds rather of some natural infection of that man, which was so strong, that neither the nature of the Clime, neither the good complexion of the mother concurring, could any thing alter, and therefore, wee cannot impute it to the nature of the Clime. And for a more fresh example, our people of Meta Incognita (of whom and for whom this discourse is taken in hand) that were brought this last year into England , were all generally of the same colour that many nations be, lying in the middest of the middle Zone. And this their colour was not only in the face which was subject to Sun and air, but also in their bodies, which were still covered with garments as ours are, yea the very sucking child of twelve months age had his skin of the very same colour that most have under the Equinoctial, which thing cannot proceed by reason of the Clime, for that they are at least ten degrees more towards the North then we in England are, No, the sun never comes near their Zenith by forty degrees: for in effect, they are within three or four degrees of that which they call the frozen Zone, and as I said, forty degrees from the burning Zone, whereby it follows, that there is some other cause then the Climate or the Sun’s perpendicular reflexion, that should cause the Ethiopians great blackness. And the most probable cause to my judgement is, that this blackness proceeds of some natural infection of the first inhabitants of that Country, and so all the whole progeny of them descended, are still polluted with the same blot of infection. Therefore it shall not be far from our purpose, to examine the first original of these black men, and howe by a lineal descent they have hitherto continued thus black.

It manifestly and plainely appears by holy Scripture, that after the general inundation and overflowing of the earth, there remained no more men alive but Noe and his three sons, Sem, Cham , and Japhet, who only were left to possess and inhabit the whole face of the earth : therefore all the sundry descents that until this present day have inhabited the whole earth, must needs come of the off-spring either of Sem, Cham , or Japhet, as the only sons of Noe, who all three being white, and their wives also, by course of nature should have begotten and brought forth white children. But the envy of our great and continual enemy the wicked Spirit is such, that as he could not suffer our olde father Adam to live in the felicity and Angelic state wherein he was first created, but tempting him, sought and procured his ruin and fall: so again, finding at this flood none but a father and three sons living, he so caused one of them to transgress and disobey his father’s commandment, that after him all his posterity should be accursed. The fact of disobedience was this: When Noe at the commandment of God had made the Ark and entered therein, and the flood-gates of heaven were opened, so that the whole face of the earth, every tree and mountain was covered with abundance of water, he straightly commanded his sons and their wives, that they should with reverence and fear behold the justice and mighty power of God, and that during the time of the flood while they remained in the Ark, they should use continence, and abstain from carnal copulation with their wives: and many other precepts he gave unto them, and admonitions touching the justice of God, in revenging sin, and his mercy in delivering them, who nothing deserved it. Which good instructions and exhortations notwithstanding his wicked son Cham disobeyed, and being persuaded that the first child borne after the flood (by right and Law of nature) should inherit and possess all the dominions of the earth, he contrary to his father’s commandement while they were yet in the Ark, used company with his wife, and craftily went about thereby to dis-inherit the off-spring of his other two brethren: for the which wicked and detestable fact, as an example for contempt of Almighty God, and disobedience of parents, God would a son should be borne whose name was Chus, who not only it self, but all his posterity after him should be so black and loathsome, that it might remain a spectacle of disobedience to all the world. And of this black and cursed Chus came all these black Moors which are in Africa , for after the water was vanished from off the face of the earth, and that the land was dry, Sem chose that part of the land to inhabit in, which now is called Asia , and Japhet had that which now is called Europa, wherein we dwell, and Africa remained for Cham and his black son Chus, and was called Chamesis after the fathers name, being perhaps a cursed, dry, sandy, and unfruitful ground, fit for such a generation to inhabit in.

Thus you see, that the cause of the Ethiopians blackness is the curse and natural infection of blood, and not the distemperature of the Climate; Which also may be proved by this example, that these black men are found in all parts of Africa , as well without the Tropics, as within, even unto Capo de buona Speranza Southward, where, by reason of the Sphere, should be the same temperature that is in Sicilia , Morea and Candie, where al be of very good complexions. Wherefore I conclude, that the blackness proceeds not of the hotness of the Clime, but as I said, of the infection of blood, and therefore this their argument gathered of the Africans blackness is not able to destroy the temperature of the middle Zone.

from A True Report of Such things as Happened in the Second Voyage of Captain Frosbisher Pretended for the Discover of a New Passage to Cathay, China, and the East India by the Northwest 

God having blessed us with so happy a land-fall, we bare into the straights which run in next hand, and somewhat further up to the Northward, and came as near the shore as wee might for the ice, and upon the eighteenth day of July our General taking the Goldfiners with him, attempted to go on shore with a small rowing Pinnace, upon the small Island where the Ore was taken up, to prove whether there were any store thereof to be found, but he could not get in all that Island a piece so big as a Walnut, where the first was found. But our men which sought the other Islands thereabouts found them all to have good store of the Ore, whereupon our General with these good tidings returned aboard about ten of the clock at night, and was joyfully welcomed of the company with a volley of shot. He brought eggs, fowles, and a young Seal aboord, which the company had killed ashore, and having found upon those Islands gins set to catch fowls, and sticks new cut, with other things, he well perceived that not long before some of the country people had resorted thither.

Having therefore found those tokens of the peoples access in those parts, and being in his first voyage well acquainted with their subtle and cruel disposition, he provided well for his better safety, and on Friday the nineteenth of July in the morning early, with his best company of Gentlemen and soldiers, to the number of forty persons, went on shore, as well to discover the Inland and habitation of the people, as also to find out some fit harbor for our ships. And passing towards the shore with no small difficulty by reason of the abundance of ice which lay alongst the coast so thick together that hardly any passage through them might be discovered, we arrived at length upon the main of Halles greater Island, and found there also as well as in the other small Islands good store of the Ore. And leaving his boats here with sufficient guard we passed up into the country about two English miles, and recovered the top of a high hill, on the top whereof our men made a Column or Crosse of stones heaped up of a good height together in good sort, and solemnly sounded a Trumpet, and said certain prayers kneeling about the Ensign, and honored the place by the name of Mount Warwick, in remembrance of the Right Honorable the Lord Ambrose Dudley Earle of Warwick, whose noble mind and good countenance in this, as in all other good actions, gave great encouragement and good furtherance. This done, we retired our companies not seeing any thing here worth further discovery, the country seeming barren and full of ragged mountains and in most parts covered with snow.

And thus marching towards our boats, we espied certain of the country people on the top of Mount Warwick with a flag wafting us back again and making great noise, with cries like the mowing of Bulls seeming greatly desirous of conference with us: whereupon the General being therewith better acquainted, answered them again with the like cries, whereat and with the noise of our trumpets they seemed greatly to rejoice, skipping, laughing and dancing for joy. And hereupon we made signs unto them, holding up two fingers, commanding two of our men to go apart from our companies, whereby they might do the like. So that forthwith two of our men & two of theirs met together a good space from company, neither party having their weapons about them. Our men gave them pins and points and such trifles as they had. And they likewise bestowed on our men two bow cases and such things as they had. They earnestly desired our men to go up into their country, and our men offered them like kindness aboard our ships, but neither part (as it seemed) admitted or trusted the others’ courtesy. Their manner of traffic is thus, they doe use to lay down of their merchandise upon the ground, so much as they mean to part withal, and so looking that the other party with whom they make trade should do the like, they themselves do depart, and then if they doe like of their Mart they come again, and take in exchange the others’ merchandise, otherwise if they like not, they take their own and depart. The day being thus well near spent, in haste we retired our companies into our boats again, minding forthwith to search alongst the coast for some harbor fit for our ships, for the present necessity thereof was much, considering that all this while they lay off and on between the two lands, being continually subject as well to great danger of fleeting ice, which environed them, as to the sudden flows which the coast seemed much subject unto. But when the people perceived our departure, with great tokens of affection they earnestly called us back again, following us almost to our boats: whereupon our Generals taking his Master with him, who was best acquainted with their manners, went apart unto two of them, meaning, if they could lay sure hold upon them, forcibly to bring them aboard, with intent to bestow certain toys and apparel upon the one, and so to dismiss him with all arguments of courtesy, and retain the other for an Interpreter. The General and his Master being met with their two companions together, after they had exchanged certain things the one with the other, one of the Salvages for lack of better merchandise, cut off the tail of his coat (which is a chief ornament among them) and gave it unto our General for a present. But he presently upon a watchword given with his Master suddenly laid hold upon the two Salvages. But the ground underfoot being slippery with the snow on the side of the hill, their hand-fast failed and their prey escaping ran away and lightly recovered their bow and arrows, which they had hid not far from them behind the rocks. And being only two Salvages in sight, they so fiercely, desperately, and with such fury assaulted and pursued our General and his Master, being altogether unarmed, and not mistrusting their subtitle that they chased them to their boats, and hurt the General in the buttocks with an arrow, who the rather speedily fled back, because they suspected a greater number behind the rocks. Our soldiers (which were commanded before to keep their boats) perceiving the danger, and hearing our men calling for shot came speedily to rescue, thinking there had bene a greater number. But when the Salvages heard the shot of one of our cavilers (and yet having first bestowed their arrows) they ran away, our men speedily following them. But a servant of my Lorde of Warwick, called Nicholas Conger a good footman, and uncombed with any furniture having only a dagger at his back overtook one of them, and being a Cornishman and a good wrestler, showed his companion such a Cornish trick, that he made his sides axe against the ground for a month after. And so being stayed, he was taken alive and brought away, but the other escaped. Thus with their strange and new prey our men repaired to their boats, and passed from the main to a small Island of a mile compass, where they resolved to tarry all night; for even now a sudden storm was grown so great at sea, that by no means they could recover their ships. And here every man refreshed himself with a small portion of victuals which was laid into the boats for their dinners, having neither ate nor drunk all the day before. But because they knew not how long the storm might last, nor how far off the ships might be put to sea, nor whether they should ever recover them again or not, they made great spare of their victuals, as it greatly behoved them: For they knew full well that the best cheer the country could yield them, was rocks and stones, a hard food to live withall, and the people more ready to eat them then to give them wherewithall to eat. And thus keeping very good watch and ward, they lay there all night upon hard cliffs of snow and ice both wet, cold, and comfortless.

***

Upon the mainland, over against the Countess’s Island, we discovered and beheld to our great marvel the poor caves and houses of those country people, which serve them (as it should seem) for their winter dwellings, and are made two fathom under ground, in compass round, like to an oven, being joined fast one by another, having holes like to a fox or cony bury, to keep and come ‘together. They under-trenched these places with gutters, so that *the water, falling from the hills above them, may slide away without their annoyance : and are seated commonly in the foot of a hill, to shield them better from the cold winds, having their door and entrance ever open towards the south. From the ground upward they build with whales’ bones, for lack of timber, which bending one over another, are handsomely compacted in the top together, and are covered over with sealskins, which, instead of tiles, fence them from the rain. In which house they have only one room, having the one half of the floor raised with broad stones a foot higher than the other, whereon strawing moss, they make their nests to sleep in. They defile these dens most filthily with their beastly feeding, and dwell so long in a place (as we think) until their sluttishness loathing them, they are forced to seek a sweeter air, and a new seat ; and are (no doubt) a dispersed and wandering nation, as the Tartarians, and live in hoards and troops, without any certain abode, as may appear by sundry circumstances of our experience.

Here our captive being ashore with us, to declare the use of such things as we saw, stayed himself alone behind the company, and did set up five small sticks round in a circle one by another, with one small bone placed just in the midst of all : which thing when one of our men perceived, he called us back to behold the matter, thinking that he had meant some charm or witchcraft therein. But the best conjecture we could make thereof was, that he would thereby his countrymen should understand, that for our five men which they betrayed the last year (whom he signified by the five sticks) he was taken and kept prisoner, which he signified by the bone in the midst. For afterwards when we shewed him the picture of his countryman, which the last year was brought into England (whose counterfeit we had drawn, with boat and other furniture, both as he was in his own, and also in English apparel), he was upon the sudden much amazed thereat; and beholding advisedly the same with silence a good while, as though he would strain courtesy whether should begin the speech (for he thought him no doubt a lively creature) at length began to question with him, as with his companion; and finding him dumb and mute, seemed to suspect him, as one disdainful, and would with a little help have grown into choler at the* matter, until at last, by feeling and handling, he found him but a deceiving picture. And then with great noise and cries, ceased not wondering, thinking that we could make men live or die at oixr pleasure.

And thereupon calling the matter to his remembrance, he gave us plainly to understand by signs, that he had knowledge of the taking of our five men the last year, and confessing the manner of each thing, numbered the five men upon his five fingers, and pointed unto a boat in our ship, which was like unto that wherein our men were betrayed : and when we made him signs, that they were slain and eaten, he earnestly denied, and made signs to the contrary.

Of the Nature and Manners of the People