Abstract

This article deals with the conflict between Italy and Ethiopia during the First Italo-Ethiopian War. The information comes from various newspaper articles documenting the Battle of Adwa, a gruesome battle where the Ethiopians defeated the Italians. The newspaper articles revealed that certain segments of Italian society opposed the war. Women fought to keep their husbands home, socialists opposed imperialism on ideological grounds, and still others were opposed due to the humiliating losses. The widespread opposition to imperialism after the Battle of Adwa complicates the standard narrative of the motivations behind the New Imperialism and questions the inevitability of European control of Africa.

Scramble For Africa

During the Scramble for Africa, European nations sought to extend their empires in Africa, driven by a desire for valuable resources and increased political power. The newly unified Italy aimed to the enter the ranks of great powers by joining the colonization race, and they set their sights on conquering Ethiopia. However, their plan backfired. Ethiopia emerged victorious in the First Italo-Ethiopian War, becoming the first and only African nation to successfully resist European colonization. The pivotal Battle of Adwa marked a turning point, resulting in Italy’s defeat, and the conflict concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Addis Ababa in 1896. This defeat had profound implications on Italy’s colonial aspirations, ending their dream of a large East African empire.

Africans had defeated a European nation. What was the press’s reaction to this unprecedented victory? How did the world react? To answer these questions, this research paper examines numerous newspaper articles from 1896, covering the Battle of Adwa and its aftermath. The articles focused primarily on the Italians and failed to shed any light on the performance of the Ethiopian army, who were referred to as the Abyssinians. The articles cast the impression that it was an Italian defeat, not an Ethiopian victory, but considering the racial ideals of the period, this bias is expected. One surprising element of the newspaper coverage was the widespread Italian resistance to the colonization of Africa. Italian elites wanted Ethiopia to be a colony, but many Italians on the periphery of society opposed imperialism. Those who protested against imperialism might have still held racist views, but they opposed colonization for various individual reasons. Women and children fought to keep their husbands’ and fathers’ home, so as to not lose their primary breadwinners. Students opposed the government on ideological grounds and wanted to make a political statement against imperialism. Italian citizens were opposed to the war in Ethiopia due to the humiliating loss, and they wanted revenge against the Italian leadership.

The Battle of Adwa

Francesco Crispi was the Prime Minister of Italy during the First Italo-Ethiopian War. He sought to make Italy more powerful in the eyes of other European powers. His goal was to create an Italian Empire, following the model of France and Britain. The Berlin Conference of 1885 was initiated by European leaders determined to carve up Africa among themselves, and this was called the Scramble for Africa. Amid this frenzy over Africa, Crispi targeted Ethiopia. He sent thousands of Italian troops to Ethiopia but unbeknownst to him the Ethiopians were well prepared and well-armed. King Menelik of Ethiopia was ready for war and had access to modern weapons and knowledge of modern warfare [1]. At the Battle of Adwa, contemporary accounts claim that 5,000 Italians were killed and many more “fell wounded [with a much more horrible fate awaiting them] than those killed on the spot” [2]. In an attempt to end the war quickly, Menelik began to cut off Italy’s supplies: “The Italians had been short of supplies for eight days. A large number of officers, desperate at the defeat, rushed on the enemy and died fighting heroically” [3]. Taking full advantage of the Italians’ weakness the Ethiopian army “…massacred entire battalions, making use especially of their lances” and “…cut off the Italians in every direction” [3]. The Italian army had no choice but to surrender.

Shock Hits Italy

People all over Italy were shocked by the defeat and news of the battle’s outcome elicited strong emotional responses. Newspapers reported the heightened level of tensions, stating that “the Kingdom of Italy today is in a condition of excitement, grief, and anger, almost beyond description” [2]. With the spread of the news, people left their homes and gathered in public spaces. “The streets were filled with people until daybreak, and after early morning every public place crowded with excited men and women” [2]. And throughout Italy, there were reports of “disturbances which have called for police intervention” [2]. Other reports claimed: “a number of riotous demonstrations during the nights” [2]. The government was fearful that additional news about the defeat would cause further unrest and according to contemporary reports, “The authorities are straining nerve to suppress all alarming news” [2]. Anxious Italians also rushed the government buildings and “the chamber of deputies [was] crowded and the galleries [were] packed with excited throngs” [2].

Resistance

Among those who were shocked much of their shock turned into resistance. Of those resisting, students were the majority. Newspaper reported that “at Naples the students of the university held a demonstration to denounce the policy of the government.” After the meeting, students were led “by the deputy, Signor Colajanni, to the perfector to express their indignation” [2]. Colajanni was an Italian politician and writer, but more importantly, he was a leading socialist. Many of the students, who joined Colajanni in resisting Italian Imperialism, were also likely socialists. Socialists disagreed with imperialistic ideals because they saw it as an outgrowth of capitalism which aggravated class divisions. Their critique extended to the belief that imperialism exploited resources and labor in foreign lands, resulting in the impoverishment of local populations, particularly the working class. Advocating for fair distribution of wealth, socialists called for an international cooperation of lower classes against the hoarding of wealth by western capitalist elites. Italian socialists at universities in Naples and elsewhere were thus opposed to Italian imperialism even before the defeat at the Battle of Adwa.

Another group of people who opposed Italian imperialism were women and children. Numerous accounts reference their attempts to halt the movement of men to the war. “A great majority of these reserves are married men whose families will thus be deprived of their chief or only support for an indefinite period. At Milan and other places, serious rioting occurred where the reserves were preparing to obey orders, and in many cities, they have been prevented from leaving by force.” People of all different ages and genders gathered together to stop the soldiers from leaving, knowing that the soldiers might be sent to their deaths. In their desperation to stop the convoys, they even started to destroy the transportation infrastructure. Once the families of these soldiers knew that they were being sent to war, the women and children demolished sections of railroads. “At Pavia a crowd of men, women, and children, stormed the railway station, where a train filled with troops bound for the seat of war was standing. The soldiers were dragged from the carriages and the rails were torn up to prevent the train from proceeding. It required more than energetic attention on the part of the authorities to clear the station and restore order.” Additional observers reported: “rails torn up, telegraph wires cut, police beaten and stoned into helplessness, and soldiers attacked” [3]. Women led the revolts and opposed the war because they were being deprived of their husbands, who were their providers and breadwinners. Children were also losing their fathers. They were aware that they may never see them again. The women, described as “frenzied,” were understandably scared and did whatever they could to stop the soldiers from leaving. They utilized every means available to them: rioting, throwing themselves against the troops, destroying rails and telegraph wires, and even beating and stoning the police.

Vengeance

Another group of Italians who were against Imperialism were those angered by the humiliating defeat in the war. They wanted revenge on the leadership of the country. All around the country people were irritated: “The agitation has spread to the country districts and from all sides come accounts or rioting, indignant protestations and denunciations and loud cries for vengeance upon those who have been responsible for the terrible reverse to the Italian armies” [4]. The ‘loud cries for vengeance’ was directed to the political and military leaders responsible for the military loss. Italians went into the war thinking they would win, but when confronted by the well-prepared Ethiopians, they lost. The Italians people wanted to hold their government responsible for this military disaster: “The crowd about Monte Citerio, upon which the chamber of deputies stands, every now and then raised cries of ‘Down with the government, death to Baratieri,’ and from the galleries, previous to the entry of the ministry, a number of persons were ejected by the police for uttering similar cries” [4]. The police had to intervene because of the threats of the rioters, who wanted the government and Baratieri to pay for what they had done. Oreste Baratieri was the governor of Italian Eritrea, and he was the one responsible for the defeat by Menelik II during the Battle of Adwa. Not long after the riots, he was forced to resign from his position. Prime Minister Francesco Crispi was also forced to resign his position as Prime Minister. This humiliating loss not only made Italy look weak but also “seriously affect[ed] Italy’s position in Europe politically and financially” [5]. The Italian people correctly anticipated the negative consequences and as a result, did not hesitate to show their opposition and dismay.

The Treaty to End the War

The military chaos ended with the Treaty of Addis Ababa, which was signed on October 23, 1896, and formally ended the First Italo-Ethiopian War. The terms were favorable for Ethiopia in contrast to the previous Treaty of Wichale. Its purpose was to create friendship, peace, and trade between Italy and Ethiopia [6]. Contemporary press account demonstrate that Italian dropped support for the war immediately after the loss.

Italians liked the idea of victory more than imperialism. The military loss to Ethiopia undermined the idea of Social Darwinism, which held that European races were superior to African races. Italy entered the Scramble for Africa assuming they would win because they considered themselves technologically and intellectually superior to the Ethiopians. When they lost the war, Italian people questioned their “superiority” as this was the first time that an African nation showed that it could rival European nation in the field of military conflict. Ethiopia declared to the world that African nations deserved to be treated as equals. The backlash to the defeat against Crispi and the Italian generals showed that support for Italian imperialism was contingent on victory. Once Italians lost the Battle of Adwa, popular support for imperialism declined.

The events of the 1890s also revealed that many women were opposed to imperialism as they fought to keep their husbands’ home. Women did not have the right to vote until 1945. If Italian women had the power to vote in 1890s, the Italian imperialist venture may have never gained any ground and it might not have been resurrected under the fascism regime of Benito Mussolini. Supporters of women’s suffrage not only advocated for the rights of women to vote but also for social and economic equality. Imperialism, on the other hand, was associated with inequality.

Students likewise opposed the government on ideological grounds because of their socialist leanings. They disagreed with imperialism as they wanted class equality and international cooperation. During the Italian elections of 1895, the historical far left that opposed imperialism won 11.6 percent of the popular vote. Poor men in Italy could not vote until 1912. If the electorate had included more of the lower class, then the parties that opposed imperialism may have received a greater percentage of the total vote.

The standard narrative of the ideological motivations for imperialism focused on race, neglecting class and gender. Contemporary newspaper articles show that women and the working class opposed imperialism. If the Revolution of 1848 in Italy, for example, had been successful in establishing a more progressive Italy, granting universal male and female suffrage, then Italian imperialism might not have had the support for the establishment of an East African Empire in the first place. This suggests that the lack of influence from women, the working class, and poor men played a crucial role in establishing Italian imperialism during this pivotal time period in history.

Contacts: dinah.narat@gmail.com, hbianchi@howardcc.edu

References

[1] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, “History & Society,” Initial fighting and Ethiopian victory, Jul. 1998. Available: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Menilek-II. [Accessed Jan. 24, 2024.

[2] “Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress,” The Madison daily leader: Italy Agitated, p. 1, March 05, 1896.

[3] “Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress,” San Antonio daily light: Abyssinian Massacre, p.1, March 05, 1896.

[4] “Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress,” The Madison daily leader: Crispi Out Of It, p. 1, March 06, 1896.

[5] “Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress,” The Dalles daily chronicle: As Viewed In London, p. 1, March 09, 1896.

[6] O.D. Oyedokun. “How Ethiopians Fought and Defeated Italians in the Battle of Adwa.” Africa Rebirth, p. 1, Sep. 2023. Available: https://www.africarebirth.com/how-ethiopians-fought-and-defeated-italians-in-the-battle-of-adwa/. Accessed January 24, 2023.)